GAIA: A NEW LOOK AT LIFE ON EARTH

A book cover is defined as any protective covering used to bind together its pages but it is also a potential reader's first impression of the book. When I decided to read this short and easy read book with a simple flower drawing on its cover, I was not expecting it to be that stimulating. However, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth is a book that can change the way you see the world. The famous “Gaia hypothesis” was introduced to the general audience by this book and it is very hard to believe that the book was written in 1979.

James Lovelock, an English chemist, had no idea of what Gaia was when he first started thinking about her.  While he was working as an atmospheric scientist at the National Institute for Medical Research in London, he invented the Electron Capture Detector (ECD), which was the most sensitive device of its time for detecting atoms and molecules in a gas (Levine, 1993). This success brought him to NASA and he was involved with NASA’s planetary exploration programme.  While he was working on methods for detecting life on Mars, he started questioning the life on Earth. By comparing the different conditions of Earth and Mars, he began to formulate the Gaia hypothesis (Lovelock, 1979).

Gaia hypothesis tries to explain the relationship between the living and non-living parts of Earth. Actually, the attempts to explain this relationship have a longer history. In 1785, James Hutton described the world as an organized body that is repaired by the nature. Also, in 1877, Thomas Henry Huxley explained that the carbonic acid composition of the atmosphere is regulated by the action of living plants (Tickell, 1993). Then in the late 1960s James Lovelock developed the Gaia hypothesis.

In the book, James Lovelock opposes the view that life exists on earth because conditions just happen to be right. The theory states that Gaia is a complex entity involving the Earth's biosphere, atmosphere, oceans and soil. This super organism regulates the physical and chemical environment needed for its survival by using cybernetic, and complex negative and positive feedback systems. James Lovelock provides several facts about the Earth to support his hypothesis. For instance, he argues that the average surface temperature has been maintained around 15 degrees centigrade for more than three eons. The concentrations of atmospheric components are regulated by life and each atmospheric gas has its own purpose to support the life. In addition, the salinity of the oceans is 3.4 percent and it has been maintained for eons. From these and other examples, Lovelock concludes that the conditions on the Earth would be different without life’s interference (1979).

After its publication, the Gaia hypothesis attracted criticism and skepticism. The hypothesis was seen as teleological by many scientists because it argues that the Earth is alive and goal-directed. On the other hand it has been credited over time and it provided a basis for the development of the Earth systems’ science. Also the hypothesis challenged the reductionist approach of most science because it required multidisciplinary approaches (Martin, 2005). In addition, many of the predictions in the book have come true such as the Greenhouse effect caused by the increase of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Also, the current scientific studies aimed at detecting life on other planets are using the idea of Gaia and they are focusing the evidence of oxygen and methane in the atmospheres of the planets (Radford, 2010).

I was very impressed by the book because it introduces a new idea that challenges the scientific orthodoxy of its time by asking unanswered questions. Also, the idea given in the book is against the human oriented point of view unlike the general tendency. It defines life on earth as a whole and represents humans as a small part of it. The author states that the pollution caused by humans is natural and it is not as dangerous as the first pollution crisis, which is the emergence of free oxygen in the atmosphere. Also, he suggests that Gaia is self-regulating system and it is capable of recovering from the natural disasters. From these ideas, some people may understand that the biosphere can be safely abused by humans because of their tendency to think human centric (Doolittle, 1981). However, in my point of view, the author tries to examine the pollution issue from a Gaian angle.

In Gaian point of view, Gaia can recover from natural disasters with or without human beings. Humans need the current perfect environmental conditions to survive. Therefore, even a little change in the concentrations of the atmospheric gases or the temperature of the Earth may cause the extinction of the humans. However, in a situation like that microscopic organisms and the regulatory systems of Gaia can survive. As a result, it is important that humans should take special care not to disturb the regulatory systems of Gaia to survive. As Lovelock states, Gaia is adaptable but humans are not.

The other thing that amazed me about the book is how well it was written. Although the idea of the book is revolutionary, it can easily be understood by the readers who do not have a scientific background. Trying to convince general audience about a very complex subject before convincing scientific world is very brave and the author achieves his purpose. In addition, there may be detailed scientific explanations throughout the book but it never bores the reader with formulates or equations. Even the book includes a separate section where most of the scientific terms are explained.

On the other hand, even if I was impressed by the overall idea given in the book, I also disagree with the author in some points. First, James Lovelock supports that life on Earth modifies the conditions on the planet that is needed for its survival and every part of Gaia has its own purpose within the system. It is obvious that life has changed the conditions of Earth but I think it has not been done on purpose. Biotic and a-biotic factors of Earth are in balance and they affect the current environment. Most of the organisms including humans are evolved to survive in this environment; therefore this environment is perfect for us.

There is a similar misunderstanding regarding evolution and adaptation concepts. Some people believe that if the world were covered entirely by water, humans would grow gills because of adaptation. The evolution process is not working like that. As Charles Darwin explains in his book, “Origin of Species”, species can adapt to environmental change by natural selection process (1859). The natural genetic variation within a population of organisms may cause some individuals to survive and reproduce more successfully than others in their current environment. Also, unless profitable variations do occur, natural selection can do nothing and it may cause the extinction of the species (Darwin, 1859). Similarly, some organisms have evolved and adapted the current conditions of Gaia throughout time but some species have gone extinct. Therefore the conditions of Gaia were not perfect for all organisms.

Moreover, the author is criticized by some scientists because of his optimistic views regarding industrial pollution. In the book, some environmentalists are portrayed as people without scientific reality and back-to-nature advocates. On the other hand, industry and government are portrayed as wholly rational entities, ever ready to solve environmental problems as they are brought to attention (Bormann, 1981). I have to say that I agree with this criticism. Today, everyone is trying to achieve the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere and reduce the industrial gases. Also, international environmental attempts against global warming such as Kyoto Protocol prove that industrial pollution is a real threat for Gaia.

Furthermore, even if I really enjoyed reading the book, there were some flaws in the organization. It is possible to get the overall idea after reading only the introduction and last chapter of the book. All of the important ideas are presented in these sections. The other chapters mostly explain the scientific background behind these ideas; therefore if you have scientific background about the issues in the book you can skip these chapters because it does not present new ideas. In addition, although the style of the book is suitable for general audience, the scientific work is not satisfying for me as an engineer. Still, the writing itself is enjoyable enough and it is worth reading. 

Besides, this book addresses several aspects of sustainability. First, the hypothesis has encouraged a systems approach to the study of the Earth by seeing and examining the planet as a whole. Also it dealt with complexity by challenging the reductionist approach of most scientists because it required multi-disciplinary approaches, which also provides a good example of another sustainability aspect, dealing with other disciplines. Most importantly, the book can be accepted as a revolution in Ecology and it challenged the scientific world’s orthodoxy of its time. The book also shows the environmental limits of Gaia. In most chapters, the author explains the various ecosystems on Earth, the problem of pollution and the principles for living within Gaia.

The above approaches are also very important for the engineers. Modern engineers should challenge the complexity and orthodoxy of science.  Also, engineers should learn to build multi-disciplinary teams to solve the complex problems of sustainability. As James Lovelock states in the book, the solution to the problems we have created for ourselves is the appropriate technology movement. By using efficient engineering designs, demand on planetary resources can be reduced. Engineers play an important role in the development and implementation of efficient and appropriate technology, which is vital for the survival of human beings on Gaia.

Overall, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth is a great book, which presents an extraordinary way of looking at things. Although there is room for more information, the arguments, whether agreed with or not, are thought-provoking and the questions are pushing the limits of science. Also, the book encourages people to find a way to live more harmoniously with Gaia. In short, this revolutionary book definitely worth reading several times.

References

Bormann, F.H., 1981. The Gaia hypothesis. Ecology. 62(2), pp.502.

Darwin, C., 1859. On the origin of species. Available at: http://darwin-online.org.uk [Accessed 23 November 2010]

Doolittle, W.F., 1981. Is nature really motherly?. The Coevolution Quarterly, Spring, pp.58-63

Hutton, J., 1785. Theory of the Earth: or an investigation of the laws observable in the composition, dissolution, and restoration of land upon the globe. Trans R Soc Edinburgh, 1, pp.209-304.

Huxley, T.H., 1877. Physiography. London: Macmillan

Levine, L., 1993. Gaia: goddess and idea. BioSystems, 31, pp.85-92.

Lovelock, J., 1979. Gaia: a new look at life on Earth. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Martin, R.E., 2005. Gaia out of equilibrium?. BioScience, 55(9), pp.799-801.

Radford, T., 2010. How James Lovelock introduced Gaia to an unsuspecting world. Guardian.co.uk, [online] 27 August. Available at: <http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2010/aug/27/james-lovelock-gaia> [Accessed 24 November 2010]

Tickell, C., 1993. Gaia: goddess and thermostat. BioSystems, 31, pp.93-98.

THE MARMARAY PROJECT

THE MARMARAY PROJECT

Istanbul transportation system has become a source of humor for Turkish people. The 2010 European Capital of Culture has failed to solve the transportation problem for decades. Especially, the tube map of Istanbul is often used by cartoonists and comedians. For a city with a population of around 15 million, the following figures can be accepted as humiliating;

            Paris Tube Map                               London Tube Map                      Istanbul Tube Map

Finally, the solution, which is called the project of the century, was announced by the government in 2004: connecting Asian and European continents with a rail-tunnel through the Bosphorus Strait. Actually, the idea of a railway tunnel under the Bosphorus Strait was first raised in 1860 by Ottoman Empire Sultan Abdul Mecit.^[1] After him, such ideas had been developed for decades and finally the project was approved in 2004. 

Marmaray Tunnel Project ^[3] 

The tunnel is special in many ways. It will be the deepest such tunnel in the world.  It will be under 55 meters of water and 5 meters of earth. Its nearest opponent, BART in San Francisco, has 40.5m water depth while this tunnel will have almost 60 meters. Structures of the tunnel have to be waterproof and an additional chemical protection should be applied in order to prevent leakages.^[2]

The Marmaray Project is more than just building a railway tunnel. The project provides a new, high-capacity railway system, connecting Halkali on the European side and with Gebze on the Asian side.^[1] The $2.6 billion system will be 76 km long and it is called as a radical solution by the experts. Zeynep Buket, an engineer working with Turkey’s transportation system argues that the population of Istanbul is increasing every year and the city is in need of a radical mass transit system like this one.^[4] However there are several objections to the project from various stakeholders.

The Marmaray Project ^[5]

OBJECTIONS

Ship Wreck ^[5]

First, during the construction of a main station of new railway system in Yenikapi, archaeologists discovered the lost Byzantine port of Theodosius, which was built in 3rd century A.C. “This was a big moment of joy and happiness for us, an unexplainable feeling,” recalls Professor Zeynep Kiziltan, the director of Istanbul's Archaeology Museum.  “At around one meter below sea level, we started finding the remains of ropes. As we continued a bit more, the remains of a boat surfaced.”^[4]

Since the discovery, hundreds of archaeologists, workers and volunteers have been working. 34 Byzantine ships ranging from dating between the 7th and 11th centuries were discovered so far.^[4] In addition, new discoveries include the first examples of scientific shipbuilding.

“The earlier methods of building depended on verbal transference of the method from master shipbuilders to apprentices,” says Cemal Pulak, an anthropologist from Texas A&M University's nautical archaeology program. “The development of the latter method ... allowed for the speedy communication of new shipbuilding ideas that could be transmitted on paper. It is the beginning of engineering. Ships could be preconceived and pre-designed.”^[4]

Unearthed Graves at the Site ^[6]

In addition to the Byzantine port findings, the archaeologists also have discovered a grave that proves the city is 6,000 years older than they previously thought. “The first man, about 8,400 years ago, came and started to settle here,” says geologist Yucel Yilmaz. “There was no Bosphorus then. The Bosphorus was a river valley... the people who settled here walked across the Bosphorus.”^[4]

On the other hand, Marmaray Project Manager Haluk Ozmen worries that they won’t make it on time because of the discoveries.^[3] However Archaeologist Metin Gokcay is rejecting all talk of deadlines.  “The Marmaray team cannot spread their cement or tunnel any deeper here until we finish,” states Mr. Gokcay. “They have to wait for us. And I will continue my work here until the last artifact made by human hands is found. It's impossible to accept anything else.”^[3]

The project was expected to complete in 2010 however the official date for the opening of the system was postponed to October 2013 because of the presence of unearthed artifacts.^[7] Moreover, Turkish-French consortium Alstom-Doğuş-Marubeni undertook the laying of the railway line but then cancelled the contract on April 29, citing rising costs. Transportation Minister of Turkey Binali Yıldırım announced that “there won’t be a change in the deadline for this project, which is Oct. 29, 2013, and all the remaining work will be completed by this date and a new tender will be held.” However, experts indicate that delay is unavoidable.^[8]

Archaeological Site at Yenikapi ^[5]

Furthermore, the project is also closely observed by UNESCO. UNESCO delegates visit the project regularly and advice on the impact of the Marmaray Project on the cultural heritage of Istanbul.^[9] Istanbul was declared World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO. However, following a series urban developments that have endangered Istanbul’s cultural heritage, UNESCO has threatened to de-list the city. UNESCO also criticizes the project because of its high budget. It is argued that the money should also be spent to protect cultural heritage instead of spending $2.6 billion to a railway project.^[10]

Fault Segmentation Model for the Marmara Region^[11]

Another problem of the project is the seismicity of the region. All this work is taking place just 19 km. from the North Anatolian Fault. The experts are expecting Istanbul region to experience an earthquake with magnitude up to 7.5 on the Richter scale during the lifetime of the Project. A number of M>7.0 earthquakes have occurred in the Marmara Region since 1500. Two in 1999 together killed 18,000 people.^[11]

Seismicity of the Marmara Region^[11]

Seismic experts from Japan, the US and Turkey have been assisting to build underground structures and a tunnel under the Bosphorus that will resist an earthquake of the maximum intensity that may be expected in the area. The designed tunnel is called as “earthquake-proof” by the engineers of the project. “If you are investing 3 billion dollars to a system such as the Marmaray, you cannot ignore even a one in a million chance of risk.” says Railways, Ports and Airports Construction General Manager Ahmet Arslan. “Marmaray Project is 100 percent secure system.”^[12]

On the other hand, the project is still criticized for its risks. “First, this region is covered with mud deposit and sand, which is water-saturated. In case of a moderate earthquake in Istanbul, these tubes may break from each other or may experience flooding,” argues Semih Tezcan, a civil engineer and a former rector of Bogazici University. “In other words, a moderate earthquake in Istanbul may cause the disaster of the millennium.”^[13]  

BENEFITS OF THE PROJECT

Traffic Jam in Istanbul

Istanbul is a fast growing mega city leading an increased demand for better transportation network. Today, the city faces severe traffic jams in the morning and evening rush hours. The transportation demand is met by the increasing use of cars (around 2 million cars). When completed, the peak hour capacity of the Marmaray Project will be 75,000 passengers per direction.^[1] The project is expected to ease traffic congestion of the city. “Marmaray will serve as the backbone of İstanbul’s transportation network.” DHL Regional Manager Haluk Ozmen explains. “Marmaray is very important not only to bring a lasting solution to İstanbul’s intercity transportation problems, but also to protect the city’s historic and natural wealth and to improve Turkey’s railroad systems”^[14]

Moreover, the project has positive impacts on environment quality of the city. It is estimated that air pollution will be reduced as a consequence of the project. Air pollution gasses such as NMHC, CO and NOx will be reduced by an average of approximately 29,000 tons annually by 2027. In addition, the reduction of green houses gasses (mainly CO2) will be an average of approximately 115,000 tons/year over the first 25 years of operation. The project will also reduce other negative environmental problems such as noise and dust.^[1]

Marmara Project Station Design^[1]

Besides, the project provides a huge public transportation system to Istanbul. It increases capacity, reliability, accessibility, punctuality, comfort and safety of the transportation services while it reduces travel time. It provides more sustainable and long-term solution to the current transportation problems. On the other hand, public transport promotes equity, standardization and harmonization.^[15] Also, imported petroleum products are mostly used for land transportation, therefore the integration of efficient and high capacity railroad transportation using electric power that is not dependent on foreign resources will be beneficial. In addition, public transport costs the society less than cars, requires less road space and energy.^[1]

OVERALL COMMENTS

The Marmaray Project is a complicated transportation project in a developing country, Turkey. Istanbul was declared a World Cultural Heritage Site and also it is the 2010 European Capital of Culture. The city should find a way to develop its transportation system while protecting its natural environment and historical heritage. Also, the seismic condition of the region should be considered. The government should not force the company to finish the project on time without achieving the minimum performance requirements of the project. Most importantly, the city should find out its historical heritage. As Prof Mehmet Ozdogan states, “Once the past is destroyed, it's irreversible.”^[6]

^REFERENCES

[1] The Marmaray Project Official Site. http://www.marmaray.com/

[2] Ingerslev et al. (2005). Marmaray project: requirements for the design and construction of the Bosphorus tunnel. Retrieved from http://www.ctta.org/FileUpload/ita/2005/pdf/EM-13.2.pdf

[3] Treasure dig threatens Bosphorus rail link. BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4949862.stm

[4] Tunnel links continents, uncovers ancient history. CNN News. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/09/21/turkey.bosphorus.tunnel.marmaray/

[5] Buket et al. (2009). THE MARMARAY PROJECT: TAKING GOOD CARE OF THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND THE HISTORICAL HERITAGE OF ISTANBUL. Retrieved from http://www.ctta.org/FileUpload/ita/2009/papers/P-10/P-10-03.pdf

[6] Istanbul's ancient past unearthed. BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7820924.stm

[7] Yenikapı dig to postpone opening of Istanbul Marmaray, academic says. Hurriyet Daily News. http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=yenikapi-excavation-project-postpones-the-opening-of-marmaray-2010-10-29

[8] French Alstom to be kept out of new Marmaray tender. Todays Zaman News. http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/news-224697-french-alstom-to-be-kept-out-of-new-marmaray-tender.html

[9] UNESCO to inspect İstanbul’s historic sites. Todays Zaman News. http://www.todayszaman.com/news-139498-unesco-to-inspect-istanbuls-historic-sites.html

[10] Istanbul's World Heritage status under threat. Euro News. http://www.euronews.net/2010/09/23/istanbul-s-world-heritage-status-under-threat/

[11] Belkaya et al. (2008). The Marmaray Project: Managing a Large Scale Project with Various Stake Holders. Retrieved from http://www.iaeng.org/publication/WCE2008/WCE2008_pp1268-1272.pdf

[12] Marmaray's disaster scenario (Iste Marmaray'in felaket senaryosu). Hurriyet News. http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/13417475.asp

[13] Earthquake critique to Marmaray (Marmaray’a deprem eleştirisi). Ntvmsnbc News. http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/272279.asp

[14] Marmaray to be connected to both İstanbul airports. Todays Zaman News. http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/news-199687-101-marmaray-to-be-connected-to-both-istanbul-airports.html

[15] Zeybek et al. (2008). ROLE OF MEGA PROJECTS IN SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THE CASE OF ISTANBUL MARMARAY PROJECT. Retrieved from http://www.codatu.org/english/conferences/codatu13/CodatuXIII-CDrom/codCD-Zeybek.pdf